Jabbar, A., Jawad Nadeem, M., Hussain, N., Qasim, A., Hafeez, M., & Sidorov, G. (2026). A Comprehensive Comparative Study of Toxic Language Detection in Roman Urdu Using Hybrid Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and LoRA-Optimized Transformer Models. International Journal of Combinatorial Optimization Problems and Informatics, 17(4), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.61467/2007.1558.2026.v17i4.1528